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  • Home
  • What is Astrometallurgy?
  • Why ISRU?
  • The Resources on the Moon
  • The Lunar Conditions
  • Metal Production Database
  • Useful Links

Metal Production Database

This page presents, in slightly too much detail, an up-to-date compilation of literature in the field of metal extraction studies and peer reviewed works.


This information has been updated from the 2021 publication by Shaw et al. and all references can be found below.


This information was last updated: 08/2023 

References

  

  1. Shaw, M., et al., Mineral processing and metal extraction on the lunar surface - challenges and opportunities. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 2021: p. 1-27.
  2. Cutler, A.H. and P. Krag. A carbothermal scheme for lunar oxygen production. in Lunar bases and space activities of the 21st century. 1985.
  3. Troisi, I., P. Lunghi, and M. Lavagna, Oxygen extraction from lunar dry regolith: Thermodynamic numerical characterization of the carbothermal reduction. Acta Astronautica, 2022. 199: p. 113-124.
  4. Prinetto, J., et al., Terrestrial demonstrator for a low-temperature carbothermal reduction process on lunar regolith simulant: Design and AIV activities. Planetary and Space Science, 2023. 225: p. 105618.
  5. Sen, S., C.S. Ray, and R.G. Reddy, Processing of lunar soil simulant for space exploration applications. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2005. 413: p. 592-597.
  6. Lu, Y. and R.G. Reddy, Extraction of metals and oxygen from lunar soil. High Temperature Materials and Processes, 2008. 27(4): p. 223-234.
  7. Monchieri, E., et al. ESA lunar in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) concept design and breadboarding activities. in 61st International Astronautical Congress. 2010. Prague, Czech Republic.
  8. Kobayashi, Y., et al., Reduction kinetics of iron oxides in molten lunar soil simulant by graphite. ISIJ international, 2010. 50(1): p. 35-43.
  9. Samouhos, M., et al., In-situ resource utilization: ferrosilicon and SiC production from BP-1 lunar regolith simulant via carbothermal reduction. Planetary and Space Science, 2022. 212: p. 105414.
  10. Beegle Jr, R., et al., Research on processes for utilization of lunar resources final report. 1965.
  11. Gustafson, R., et al. Demonstrating the solar carbothermal reduction of lunar regolith to produce oxygen. in 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. 2010. Reston, VA, USA.: AIAA.
  12. Criswell, D. and R. Waldron. Chemical processing of lunar materials. in 30th IAC. 1979. Munich, Germany: IAF.
  13. Waldron, R.D. and D.R. Criswell, Materials processing in space, in In Space Industrialization, B.O. Leary, Editor. 1982, AIAA: New York, USA. p. 97.
  14. Rosenberg, S.D., G.A. Guter, and F. Miller, The on-site manufacture of propellant oxygen from lunar resources. Aerospace Chemical Engineering, 1966. 62: p. 61,228-234.
  15. Mc Cullough, E. and A. Cutler. ISRU lunar processing research at Boeing. in 39th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. 2001. Reno, NV, USA: AIAA.
  16. Mason, L.W., Beneficiation and comminution circuit for the production of lunar liquid oxygen (LLOX). Engineering, Construction, and Operations in space-III: Space'92, 1992. 1: p. 1139-1149.
  17. Krag, P.W., On the carbothermic reduction of anorthosite. 1989, Colorado School of Mines: Golden, CO.
  18. Gibson, M.A. and C.W. Knudsen, Lunar oxygen production from ilmenite, in Lunar bases and space activities of the 21st century, W.W. Mendell, Editor. 1985, Lunar and PLanetary Institute: Houston, Texas. p. 543-550.
  19. Gibson, M.A., et al., Reduction of lunar basalt 70035: Oxygen yield and reaction product analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 1994. 99(E5): p. 10887-10897.
  20. Lu, Y., D. Mantha, and R.G. Reddy, Thermodynamic analysis on lunar soil reduced by hydrogen. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 2010. 41(6): p. 1321-1327.
  21. Sanders, G.B. and W.E. Larson, Progress made in lunar in situ resource utilization under NASA’s exploration technology and development program.Journal of aerospace engineering, 2013. 26(1): p. 5-17.
  22. Allen, C.C., R.V. Morris, and D.S. McKay, Oxygen extraction from lunar soils and pyroclastic glass. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 1996. 101(E11): p. 26085-26095.
  23. Yoshida, H., et al. Experimental study on water production by hydrogen reduction of lunar soil simulant in a fixed bed reactor. in Space Resources Roundtable Inc., . 2000. Golden, CO: Lunar and Planetary Institute,.
  24. Denk, T., et al. Design and test of a concentrated solar powered fluidized bed reactor for ilmenite reduction. in SolarPACES 2017. Solar Power & Chemical Energy Systems. 2017. Santiago de Chile.
  25. Sargeant, H., et al. Water production from lunar simulants and samples: an in situ resource utilization demonstration. in 51st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 2020. The Woodlands, Texas, USA: LPI.
  26. Sargeant, H., et al., Hydrogen reduction of ilmenite: Towards an in situ resource utilization demonstration on the surface of the Moon.Planetary and Space Science, 2020. 180: p. 104751.
  27. Sargeant, H., et al., Experimental development and testing of the ilmenite reduction reaction for a lunar ISRU demonstration with ProSPA.2019.
  28. Kumai, E., et al., A continuous hydrogen reduction process for the production of water on the Moon. International Journal of Microgravity Science and Application, 2021. 38(2): p. 380203.
  29. Stancati, M.L., et al., In situ propellant production: Alternatives for Mars exploration. NASA CR, 1991. 187192.
  30. Williams, R.J. Oxygen extraction from lunar materials: An experimental test of an ilmenite reduction process. in Lunar bases and space activities of the 21st century. 1985. Houston, Texas: Lunar and Planetary Institute.
  31. Kaschubek, D., M. Killian, and L. Grill, System analysis of a Moon base at the south pole: Considering landing sites, ECLSS and ISRU. Acta Astronautica, 2021. 186: p. 33-49.
  32. Gott, R., et al. Hydrogen plasma reduction of silicates for lunar oxygen liberation. in 74th Annual Gaseous Electronics Conference 2021. Virtual Room: GEC platform: APS.
  33. Guerrero-Gonzalez, F.J. and P. Zabel, System analysis of an ISRU production plant: Extraction of metals and oxygen from lunar regolith. Acta Astronautica, 2023. 203: p. 187-201.
  34. Allanore, A., Features and challenges of molten oxide electrolytes for metal extraction.Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2015. 162(1): p. E13-E22.
  35. Curreri, P., et al., Process demonstration for lunar in situ resource utilization–molten oxide electrolysis. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. MSFC Independent Research and Development Project, 2006(5-81): p. 1.
  36. Jarrett, N., S. Das, and W. Haupin, Extraction of oxygen and metals from lunar ores. Space Sol. Power Rev.;(United States), 1980. 1(4).
  37. Sadoway, D.R., From oxygen generation to metals production: In situ resource utilization by molten oxide electrolysis. The NASA STI Program Office, 2001: p. 525.
  38. Kesterke, D.G., Electrowinning of oxygen from silicate rocks. Vol. 7587. 1971, Washington, DC: US Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines.
  39. Waldron, R., D. Criswell, and T. Erstfeld. Overview of methods for extraterrestrial materials processing. in 4th Conference on Space Manufacturing Facilities Princeton University. 1979.
  40. Liu, A., et al., Lunar soil simulant electrolysis using inert anode for Al-Si alloy and oxygen production. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2017. 164(2): p. H126-H133.
  41. Sirk, A.H., D.R. Sadoway, and L. Sibille, Direct electrolysis of molten lunar regolith for the production of oxygen and metals on the Moon. ECS transactions., 2010. 28(6): p. 367-373.
  42. Badescu, V., Moon: Prospective energy and material resources. 2012, Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media.
  43. Schreiner, S.S., et al. Integrated modeling and optimization of lunar In-Situ Resource Utilization systems. in 2015 IEEE Aerospace Conference. 2015. Montana, USA.
  44. Standish, E.C., Design of a molten materials handling device for support of molten regolith electrolysis, in Department of Materials Science and Engineering. 2010, The Ohio State University: Ohio, USA.
  45. Sibille, L., et al. Recent advances in scale-up development of molten regolith electrolysis for oxygen production in support of a lunar base. in 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. 2009. Orlando, Florida, USA.
  46. Mueller, R.P., et al., FY17 Report summaries of five completed center innovation fund (CIF) projects for the highlights/abstract section of the FY 2018 CIF annual report. 2018.
  47. Schreiner, S.S., Molten Regolith Electrolysis reactor modeling and optimization of in-situ resource utilization systems. 2015, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  48. Vai, A., et al. Molten oxide electrolysis for lunar oxygen generation using in situ resources. in Jim Evans Honorary Symposium. 2010. Warrendale, PA, USA: TMS.
  49. Steurer, W.H., Extraterrestrial materials processing. 1982, CA, USA: NASA, JPL.
  50. du Fresne, E. and J. Schroeder, Magma electrolysis, in Research on the Use of Space Resources. 1983, NASA: Pasadena California. p. 71-91.
  51. Colson, R. and L. Haskin, Oxygen and iron production by electrolytic smelting of lunar soil. Washington University, NASA, 1991.
  52. Runyon, K., et al., A systems-level approach to extracting oxygen from lunar regolith via Molten Regolith Electrolysis. 44th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 16-24 July, 2022. 44: p. 138.
  53. Haskin, L.A., et al. Electrolytic smelting of lunar rock for oxygen, iron, and silicon. in NASA. Johnson Space Center, The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Volume 2. 1992.
  54. Schwandt, C., et al., The production of oxygen and metal from lunar regolith. Planetary and space science, 2012. 74(1): p. 49-56.
  55. Lomax, B.A., et al., Proving the viability of an electrochemical process for the simultaneous extraction of oxygen and production of metal alloys from lunar regolith. Planetary and Space Science, 2019: p. 104748.
  56. Lomax, B., et al. Oxygen extraction from regolith using the FFC molten salt process. in 44th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 16-24 July. 2022. Athens, Greece.
  57. Meurisse, A., et al., Lower temperature electrochemical reduction of lunar regolith simulants in molten salts. Planetary and Space Science, 2022. 211: p. 105408.
  58. Radl, A., et al., From lunar regolith to oxygen and structural materials: an integrated conceptual design. CEAS Space Journal, 2022.
  59. Shi, H., et al., Extracting Oxygen from Chang’e-5 Lunar Regolith Simulants. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2022. 10(41): p. 13661-13668.
  60. Nakamura, T. and C.L. Senior. Solar thermal power system for lunar ISRU processes. in AIP Conference Proceedings 746. 2005. Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
  61. Senior, C. Lunar oxygen production by pyrolysis. in Space Programs and Technologies Conference. 1992. Huntsville, AL, USA: AIAA.
  62. Sauerborn, M., Pyrolyse von metalloxiden und silikaten unter vakuum mit konzentrierter solarstrahlung. 2005, Universitäts-und Landesbibliothek Bonn: Bonn, Germany.
  63. Sauerborn, M., et al. Solar heated vacuum pyrolysis of lunar soil. in 35th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. 2004. Paris, France.
  64. Getty, S.A., et al., Development of an evolved gas-time-of-flight mass spectrometer for the Volatile Analysis by Pyrolysis of Regolith (VAPoR) instrument. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry, 2010. 295(3): p. 124-132.
  65. Cardiff, E.H., et al. Vacuum pyrolysis and related ISRU Techniques. in AIP Conference Proceedings. 2007. Albuquerque, New Mexico: AIP.
  66. Matchett, J., Production of lunar oxygen through vacuum pyrolysis, in School of Engineering and Applied Science. 2006, George Washington Univ Washington, DC, USA 
  67. Steurer, W., Vapor phase pyrolysis. Space resources 1992. 3(NASA SP-509): p. 210.
  68. Steurer, W. and B. Nerad, Vapor phase reduction. Research on the Use of Space Resources, ed. WF Carroll, NASA JPL Publ, 1983: p. 83-36.
  69. Cardiff, E. and B. Pomeroy. Development of vacuum pyrolysis techniques. in Space Resources Roundtable VIII: Program and Abstracts(LPI Contribution No. 1332). 2007.
  70. Sparks, D.R., Vacuum reduction of extraterrestrial silicates. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 1988. 25(2): p. 187-189.
  71. Shaw, M.G., et al., Thermodynamic modelling of ultra-high vacuum thermal decomposition for lunar resource processing. Planetary and Space Science, 2021: p. 105272.
  72. Burton, R.L., et al., Oxygen extraction apparatus and process. 2011, Google Patents.
  73. Burton, R. and D. King, Hydrogen-enhanced lunar oxygen extraction and storage using only solar power. NASA Tech Briefs, 2013(July 2013).
  74. Schubert, P.J., Oxygen separation from lunar regolith. 2007, SAE Technical Paper.
  75. Carroll, W.F., Research on the use of space resources, NASA, Editor. 1983, JPL publication: Pasadena California.
  76. Sen, S., et al., Plasma processing of lunar regolith simulant for oxygen and glass production, in Earth and Space 2010: Engineering, Science, Construction, and Operations in Challenging Environments. 2010. p. 1343-1352.
  77. Fox, E.T., Ionic liquid and in situ resource utilization, NASA, Editor. 2019: Washington DC, USA.
  78. Karr, L.J., et al. Ionic liquid facilitated recovery of metals and oxygen from regolith. in 2018 AIAA SPACE and Astronautics Forum and Exposition. 2018. Orlando, FL: AIAA.
  79. Paley, M.S., L.J. Karr, and P. Curreri. Oxygen production from lunar regolith using Ionic liquids. in Space Propuls. Energy Sci. Int. Forum. 2009. Huntsville, Alabama, USA.
  80. Stewart, B.C., et al., Effects of nickel and manganese on ductile iron utilizing ionic liquid harvested iron and Bosch byproduct carbon. Acta Astronautica, 2023. 204: p. 175-185.
  81. Vijapur, S.H., et al., Ionic liquid-assisted electrochemical extraction of oxygen from lunar regolith. ECS Meeting Abstracts, 2021. MA2021-02(59): p. 1754-1754.
  82. Xie, K., et al., Aluminothermic reduction-molten salt electrolysis using inert anode for oxygen and Al-base alloy extraction from lunar soil simulant. JOM : The journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 2017. 69(10): p. 1963-1969.
  83. Rao, D.B., et al., Extraction processes for the production of aluminum, titanium, iron, magnesium, and oxygen and nonterrestrial sources, in Space Resources and Space Settlements. NASA SP-428, W.G. John Billingham, and Brian O'Leary, Editor. 1979, NASA: Washington, D.C., USA. p. 257.
  84. Anthony, D., et al. Dry extraction of silicon and aluminium from lunar ores. in Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1988. Houston, Texas.
  85. Li, C., et al., A novel strategy to extract lunar mare KREEP-rich metal resources using a silicon collector. Journal of Rare Earths, 2022.
  86. Sammells, A. and K. Semkow. Electrolytic cell for lunar ore refining and electric energy storage. in Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1988. Houston, TX, USA: LPI.
  87. Semkow, K.W. and A.F. Sammells, The indirect electrochemical refining of lunar ores. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1987. 134: p. 2088.
  88. Sullivan, T.A., A modified sulfate process to lunar oxygen, in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space Iii, Vols 1 and 2, W.Z. Sadeh, S. Sture, and R.J. Miller, Editors. 1992: New York. p. 641-650.
  89. Landis, G.A., Materials refining on the Moon. Acta astronautica., 2007. 60(10-11): p. 906-915.
  90. Seboldt, W., et al., Lunar oxygen extraction using fluorine, in Resources of near earth space, J.S.L. Mary L. Guerrieri, Mildred S. Matthews, Editor. 1993, University of Arizona Press: Tucson, USA. p. 129-148.
  91. Burt, D.M. Lunar mining of oxygen using fluorine. in The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1992. Houston, Texas: Johnson Space Center.
  92. Reichert, M., S. Lingner, and W. Seboldt, Lunar oxygen: Economic benefit for transportation systems and in situ production by fluorination. Acta Astronautica, 1994. 32(12): p. 809-820.
  93. Turan, E.M., et al., A flow sheet for the conversion of lunar regolith using fluorine gas. Advances in Space Research, 2020.
  94. Waldron, R. Total Separation and Refinement of Lunar Soils by the HF Acid Leach Process. in Proceedings of the Seventh SSI/Princeton Conference on Space Manufacturing. 1985. New York: AIAA.
  95. Castelein, S.M., et al., Iron can be microbially extracted from Lunar and Martian regolith simulants and 3D printed into tough structural materials.Plos one, 2021. 16(4): p. e0249962.
  96. Volger, R., et al., Mining moon & mars with microbes: Biological approaches to extract iron from Lunar and Martian regolith. Planetary and Space Science, 2020: p. 104850.
  97. Lehner, B.A.E., et al., End-to-end mission design for microbial ISRU activities as preparation for a moon village. Acta Astronautica, 2019. 162: p. 216-226.
  98. Lynch, D., Chlorination processing of local planetary ores for oxygen and metallurgically important metals. NASA Space Engineering Research Center for Utilization of Local Planetary Resources, 1989.
  99. Landis, G. Calcium reduction as a process for oxygen production from lunar regolith. in 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. 2011. Orlando, Florida, USA.
  100. Kornuta, D., et al., Commercial lunar propellant architecture: A collaborative study of lunar propellant production. REACH, 2019. 13: p. 100026.
  101. Ethridge, E. and W. Kaukler. Microwave extraction of water from lunar regolith simulant. 2007. American Institute of Physics.
  102. Visnapuu, A., B. Marek, and J.W. Jensen, Conversion of ilmenite to rutile by a carbonyl process. Vol. 7719. 1973: US Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines.

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